In 2015, India invested an overi 5 percent of its GDP on infrastructure. The Global Assessment Report – 2015, estimated average annual losses due to disasters in India at almost $10 billion. Over 65 percentii of public sector losses due to major disasters in India are attributable to the impact on critical infrastructure, therefore a significant amount of infrastructure investment is directed at re-building. The opportunity cost associated with such expenditure is glaring considering the existing infrastructure deficits in India. The Union Budget 2017-18 pitches infrastructure as a driver for development in the country and projected infrastructure investment needs for the year 2030 vary between $187iii billion and $291iv billion.
NAGAPPATTINAM HARBOUR CONSTRUCTION
In this backdrop, resilient infrastructure not only emerges as an ethical imperative, but also an economic one. The need for resilient infrastructure is recognised in all the key instruments1 of the 2030 agenda. Tabled at the 7th Asian Ministerial Conference for Disaster Risk Reduction, the issue of resilient infrastructure features in the Indian Prime Minister’s 10 Point Agenda as well as the Asia Regional Plan for implementing the Sendai Framework for DRR. Investing in India’s Resilience through investments in the country’s infrastructure has been at the forefront of the World Bank Group’s (WBG) efforts towards ending extreme poverty and boosting shared prosperity - both as a marker as well as a conduit for growth. Decades of investing in infrastructure development have enabled us to appreciate its potential to lock-in either risk or resilience. This is so, as some of the poorest and infrastructure scarce areas are also disaster and climate risk prone. Over the years, WBG’s portfolio has included: resilient housing in all major post-disaster contexts; construction, restoration, and reconstruction of resilient public utilities; infrastructure for resilient livelihoods; protective infrastructure like embankments; and ‘natural infrastructure’ like coastal shelterbelts. This document presents some of the ways in which the WBG has invested in India’s resilience through infrastructure.
1 Goal 9 of the SDGs; Target 4 of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction; Implementation Plan of the New Urban Agenda.
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HOUSING PROGRAM
1. RESILIENT HOUSING The WBG has been assisting post-disaster shelter reconstruction in India since the 90s. Until now, over 467,000 multi-hazard resistant houses have been built and 41,751 houses repaired across differentv disaster risk and socio-geographic contexts and supported by diverse institutional mechanisms. Lessons from previous experiences have continued to inform subsequent programming for resilient housing. For example, the owner driven reconstruction process- with early community participation, appointment of a third-party sociotechnical support agency, respect for traditional techniques and continued capacity buildingcontinues to be the most enduring contributor for resilience in housing reconstruction. Over the years, provision of choices of modalities (owner/contractorbuilt; individual/group construction), designs and constructive systems (framed, load bearing); and materials (concrete, local stones, timber, bamboo etc.), to affected communities have accorded dignity and self-empowerment to the reconstruction process. Compliance to hazard-resistant design is
ensured through phased instalments conditional upon certification by designated engineers. Habitation planning is usually undertaken in accordance with policies of State governments with provisions for relocation, rehabilitation and for those without land ownership. Associated civic amenities are either provided through linkages with relevant government schemes or constructed as a part of the project. Resilience of these amenities is also ensured, including access to solar lights and clean cooking mechanisms, and the houses are insured for 10 years. In addition to the financial assistance, the socio-technical support via the appointment of a support agency goes a long way in ensuring resilience. Creation of local building capacity through mason training, especially with adequate representation of women, contributes not only to the resilience of houses being built but also the houses that will be constructed in the future.
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TRENCH FOR UNDERGROUND CABLE LAYING
2. RESILIENT PUBLIC UTILITIES 2.1 UNDER GROUND ELECTRICAL CABLES Damage to overhead power lines due to winds, falling of trees or flooding of equipment severely affects lives and livelihoods in the aftermath of cyclonic storms – disrupting power supply for hours to weeks. Overhead power lines also pose risks of electrocution and injury during floods and storms. To prevent these disruptions, underground electrical cabling is being supported in at-risk coastal towns in Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Puducherry, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. This cabling process uses innovative technology to ensure higher resistance to electrical stress and extreme weather. Technicians from the State Electricity Departments have been trained on both installing and maintaining these new technologies along with procurement of appropriate equipment for monitoring and ensuring continued functionality. 12,000 kms of underground electrical cable laying will be undertaken with the objective of ensuring uninterrupted power supply. Resilience emerges from accounting for not just existing risks but also
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emerging risks in the life-cycle of the infrastructure. Initial higher costs are offset in multiple ways- the underground cables reduce power losses by 20-45 percent, are pedestrian and vehicle friendly, provide additional revenue, and save the additional costs of repair and power back-up during disasters.
2.2 RURAL ROADS WBG has been supporting the national Rural Roads Project in India, PMGSY, since 2010. Rural roads bear the brunt of earthquakes, floods, landslides, sudden cloudbursts and other extreme events, further restricting access to essential services and relief supplies to the most affected. To address this, the WBG is conducting assessments to identify the most vulnerable road sections and design suitable retrofitting programs. Existing bridges and culverts are also being retrofitted. Where available, sand deposits accumulated from frequent floods, industrial by-products, and certain types of plastic, as well as mining and construction waste have been used for road construction. Building these roads have been about 25% cheaper, on average, than those requiring commonly used rock aggregates. The environmental benefits of using the above
IDUKKI DAM
materials, in terms of addressing the problem of disposing such materials and reducing the consumption of scarce natural stone aggregates, are as significant as the cost savings. The construction work is complemented with support towards establishing asset management plans, appropriate maintenance policies and innovative maintenance contracts, including through community-based approaches. Further research to develop suitable designs and construction standards and developing good practice manuals is also being supported by the WBG. Environmentally optimized road designs using local and marginal materials contribute to the resilience of this infrastructure, providing both economic and environmental benefits.
2.3 DAM-SAFETY WBG is supporting improvement of safety and operational performance of 198 existing dams in 7 states of India. Considering the large number of dams in India, this project showcases how to return dams to fully operational and safe condition
in a technically and financially sustainable manner, in addition to building capacities to monitor the performance of dams. The project is focused on comprehensive rehabilitation and improvement of 198 dams including hydrological assessments, dam instrumentation, preparation of asset management plans and emergency preparedness plans, development of emergency warning systems, public awareness campaigns, and inundation mapping. Additionally, Dam Safety Organization (DSO) is being strengthened at national and state levels. So far, 87 training programs focusing on various dam safety aspects including dam instrumentation, dam break analysis, assets management, project management and construction supervision etc. have been carried out benefiting more than 3,000 central and state government officials. National level guidelines for dam instrumentation and monitoring and dam safety operations after seismic events have also been prepared.
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MULTI PURPOSE CYCLONE SHELTER
3. RESILIENCE THROUGH PROTECTIVE INFRASTRUCTURE 3.1 MULTI-PURPOSE CYCLONE SHELTERS Government of India through the Cyclone Risk Mitigation Program is committed to ensuring access to emergency shelters to all coastal communities. About 1000 Multi-Purpose Cyclone Shelters (MPCSs) have been constructed in Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu and another about 300 are under construction in Gujarat and West Bengal, providing access to safe shelters to over a million people. Designed from a multi-hazard perspective, the shelters can withstand wind speeds up to 300 kmph, endure moderate earthquakes and remain unaffected in storm surges. Raised on stilts or on plinths as per the storm surge levels of individual sites, shelters are equipped with power back-up arrangements, water supply as well as emergency equipment for first-aid, relief, and rescue etc. Access to the shelter is not only ensured through an inclusive design (for e.g. ramps and toilets for persons with disability), but also through construction and repair of all-weather access roads.
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Extensive community consultations, especially with women, have ensured that the shelters are vibrant community spaces - used as schools, colleges, and community centres during nonemergency periods - and well-maintained for use in emergencies. Cyclone Shelter Management and Maintenance Committees manage the operation and maintenance, including generating maintenance funds through community activities. The Committee members and Village Disaster Management Teams have been trained on first-aid and search & rescue operations and conduct regular mock drills; further, linkages have been established with the host village’s disaster management processes. With the MPCSs, resilience is not just a function of their structural design, but also community processes before, during and after construction.
3.2 SHELTERBELTS AND MANGROVES The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami highlighted the criticality of natural infrastructure for coastal protection. Coastal ecosystems like shelterbelt
VISAKHAPATNAM ECO PARK
plantations and mangroves act as bio-shields – buffering land from sea, checking erosion and containing the impact of storms and tidal ingress. With WBG support, about 6,700 ha of shelterbelts have been raised and over 2,200 ha of mangrove plantations have been regenerated in Tamil Nadu. Post cyclone Hudhud, a similar program is currently underway in Andhra Pradesh. The processes of site and species selection as well as maintenance and monitoring for shelterbelts and mangroves are undertaken through stakeholder consultations, including through formation of Village Forest Committees. The benefits of this natural infrastructure extend beyond coastal protection. This process generated 13,000 days of direct employment for local communities and contributed to long term livelihood opportunities by improving fishing, increasing ground water, protecting agricultural lands from salinity, and planting trees of economic value. Raising mangroves also contributes to the conservation of estuarine ecosystems. An important aspect of resilience of this infrastructure was its sensitivity to risk creation. Upon discovery that the location of shelterbelts up to the High Tide Line could endanger the nesting of Olive Ridley Sea Turtles, the shelterbelts were removed sufficiently away from this zone. Similarly, environmental education programs were carried out regarding the benefits of shelterbelts and to address the competing demands from agriculture, aquaculture, and grazing,
thereby maintaining the interconnectedness essential for resilience in ecosystems.
3.3 SALINE AND RIVER EMBANKMENTS Reconstruction efforts after the 1999 cyclone in Odisha brought attention to the vulnerability of pre-existing and sometimes locally constructed embankments which were erosion-prone and likely to breach during disasters. Embankment breaches pose the risk of destructive flash floods, as experienced in Bihar in 2008. Since 2002, WBG is supporting a more resilient embankment design by replacing existing erodible embankments with adequately high and strong embankments lined with stone filled gabions. Saline embankments are being strengthened in Goa, Karnataka, and Maharashtra and particularly in coastal Orissa and Andhra Pradesh, which experience many cyclonic storms. Similarly, river embankments are being strengthened in Bihar as a part of the Kosi flood rehabilitation efforts. So far over 100 kms of embankments have been strengthened through a process that involves communities in identification of weak spots as well as in monitoring and management of the embankments. Social and Environmental Impact Assessment exercises preceding the construction rule-out potential risk creation due to these embankments. These strengthened structures have demonstrated greater resistance to floods, tidal surges and cyclones. ďťż7
WARNING TOWER WITH SIREN AND LIGHTS
3.4 EARLY WARNING DISSEMINATION SYSTEM WBG has been supporting the establishment of Early Warning Dissemination Systems since 2010 - beginning in Odisha and Andhra Pradesh, and extending to Goa, Gujarat, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Puducherry, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. The system will enable state and district Emergency Operations Centres (EOC) to consolidate warnings received from organisations like INCOIS, IMD2 etc. and send alerts directly to villages and towns using GSM or CDMA3 based technology. The EOCs are also strengthened to have standard operating procedures for appropriate and timely communication. Disaster warning announcement systems located in remote sites (including coastal habitations and community spaces like fish landing centres, schools, places of worship etc.) seek to ensure last mile connectivity and are enabled with sirens and strobe lights to generate sound and visual alarms within a 1 km radius.
Warnings can also be issued through broadcasting of pre-recording messages, mass SMSs and other data-based media. Officials at different levels are trained on operating and maintaining the equipment, as are representatives from communities. Communities are also engaged in disaster preparedness and response processes, including regular mock-drills. All infrastructure and equipment in the early warning dissemination system are established on principles of resilience, including redundancy, and provision of back-up equipment like satellite phones is also ensured.
2 INCOIS: Indian National Center for Ocean Information Services; IMD: Indian Meteorological Department 3 GSM: Global System for Mobile Communications; CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access
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FISHING HARBOUR
4. RESILIENCE IN LIVELIHOODS THROUGH INFRASTRUCTURE 4.1 MODERN INFRASTRUCTURE FOR FISHERIES Damage or disruption of critical infrastructure is one of the key drivers of livelihood losses due to disasters. This is especially true for coastal livelihoods like fisheries which have a higher exposure to climate and disaster risks. To improve the sustainability and resilience of fisheries in the coastal regions of Tamil Nadu and Puducherry, the WBG is investing in the reconstruction and modernisation of fishing infrastructure. This has included the construction and upgradation of fish landing centres, fishing harbours, fish markets and opening of bar mouths for safe navigation of fishing vessels. Additionally, cold storage, ice plants for fish preservation, hygienic auction halls, and adequate clean water supply have also been provided. Together, these have ensured landing and berthing facilities for nearly 2000 fishing vessels with estimated landings of about 55,500 tons of fish per year. Work Shelters have been provided for traditional and motorized traditional crafts, thereby ensuring safety for 700 motors and gear during off season
and cyclonic weather. These are also safe spaces for mending nets and repair of machinery. All this infrastructure has withstood three cyclones since their construction – Hudhud (2014), Vardah (2016), and Ockhi (2017) - ensuing a speedier resumption of livelihood activities for fishing communities.
4.2 IRRIGATION INFRASTRUCTURE FOR AGRICULTURE Since 2011, the WBG has been supporting the development and implementation of minor irrigation schemes to enhance agricultural production of small and marginal farmers, with a focus on drought-prone districts of West Bengal. In addition to accelerated development of irrigation services, the project strengthens community-based institutions for irrigation management, operation, and maintenance; and promotes crop diversification, use of improved technologies and alternative income-generating opportunities. The planning process for the minor irrigation schemes is based on a watershed-based approach; the designs are updated according to groundwater scenarios in different areas; and solar based energization has been introduced. Schemes ďťż9
have been revised for drought prone areas to have surface storage structures like check dams and small reservoirs/ponds instead of tube-wells. This has been a significant change for department engineers from their routine work, who have now upgraded designs and specifications accordingly. In drought prone areas, these schemes have helped save Kharif crops from
failure and ensured two-three crops in a year. There has also been an increase in cash crops during Rabi season or pre-Kharif season with overall increase in production and cropping intensity. There was also an increase in vegetable area due to improved agricultural and water management practices.
APPLICATION OF GIS TECHNOLOGY FOR RESILIENT INFRASTRUCTURE
Under the National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project, WBG’s infrastructure support has included construction of cyclone shelters, link-roads, embankments, bridges for evacuation, drainage improvement measures and upgrading of existing roads. The construction of resilient infrastructure in this project was supported with the use of Geographic Information System (GIS) technology at multiple stages of the project. A GIS-based Environment Screening Exercise avoided any potential creation of environmental risk due to improper site selection for this infrastructure. GPS data about the proposed infrastructure site locations was collected and positioned in the GIS data layers. Subsequently, this was integrated with various thematic layers including topographic maps and maps of Coastal Regulation Zone, roads, forest-land, water bodies as well as weather data obtained from relevant government agencies. This was complemented with a social screening of these maps through consultations with local communities to ensure that no activity with any likelihood of creating significant or irreversible adverse impact on the environment is taken up. In addition to location selection, the GIS platform was also used to simulate the coverage of saline embankments to optimise their design for better coverage. The GIS also enabled efficient land-use planning by facilitating use of existing alignments rather than additional land acquisition. Further, these platforms are now being used for a wide variety of other purposes like for locating developmental projects and to pin point air dropping of relief material by Indian Air Force personnel during disasters.
WAY FORWARD The WBG’s abiding commitment and investments towards resilient infrastructure in India have evolved in line with the country’s experiences of disasters as well as socio-economic transitions. The combined projected impact of climate change and increasing urbanisation is going to further necessitate resilient infrastructure. Going forward, and in dealing with higher levels of uncertainty, it will be important to draw guidance from past lessons. Some of the processes and experiences contributing to resilient infrastructure, as emerging from the examples above, are: • Robust risk analyses across the life-
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cycle of the infrastructure; Meaningful community participation at different stages, especially engaging women in decision-making; Operational mitigation measures for functional continuity during disasters; Investment in local capacities for resilient construction and maintenance; Respect for traditional knowledge as well as with use of modern technology; Sensitivity to potential risk creation; and Innovative financial instruments.
TAMIL NADU FISHERS
ENSURING RESILIENCE OF MARINE ECOSYSTEMS THROUGH SUSTAINABLE FISHERIES SUPPORT
The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami heavily impacted livelihoods of fishing communities with destruction of fisheries infrastructure and decline in catchvi, –reducing fishing incomes by 40-67%vii. In 2006, an inter-organisation scoping study supported by WBG flagged the overexploitation of marine resources. Failure to address these underlying risk factors building up before the tsunami significantly impacted the resilience of marine ecosystems. Consequently, WBG has supported Sustainable Fisheries in Tamil Nadu and Puducherry since 2010 to facilitate responsible fisheries management and strengthening governance for improving sustainable fisheries. This includes promoting ecosystem-based fisheries management (fisheries co-management between user groups and the government; improve knowledge management by creating information centres, establishing resource database, and modernising fisheries libraries); fostering efficient aquaculture practices (cage culture, bivalve and seaweed farming); promoting hygienic fish processing and marketing (modern fish market, kiosks, and fish transport); and diversification of livelihoods, particularly for women, in non-fisheries activities (valuable products from coconut shell). Seamless wireless communication system for the safety of fishers at sea is also being established.
ENDNOTES i
ADB (2017) Meeting Asia’s Infrastructure Needs. Manila. ADB. See also: Livemint, 01.03.17, India’s la-la land infrastructure moment.
ii
Presentation at the Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction, session on Ensuring Risk-Resilient Critical Infrastructure. See also, press release, Public Information Bureau, Government of India, 25.05.17.
iii Infrastructure Outlook, Global Infrastructure Hub. iv ADB (2017) Meeting Asia’s Infrastructure Needs. Manila. ADB. v
Maharashtra (1993), Gujarat (2001), Puducherry (2004), Tamil Nadu (2004), Bihar (2008), Uttarakhand (2013) and Odisha (2013).
vi NACA, FAO, SEAFDEC and BOBP-IGO (2005) Tsunami impact on fisheries & aquaculture in India. vii R. Sathiadas and Sangeetha K. Prathap (2005) Socio-Economic Impact of Tsunami on Fisheries and Coastal Communities in
Kerala. In: Proceedings of the Seventh Indian Fisheries Forum, 2005, Kochi.
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